The Birth of Nigeria: Forged in Trade and Deception

What is a country? This is a curious but pertinent question. I would describe a country as a large landmass, probably enclosed by natural borders with a people, perhaps remnants of ancient empires, who have a sense of themselves, who are not ruled or influenced by a foreign power, who possess more than enough resources to take care of themselves and can bank on these resources to help them become a global player now or in the future. Although it was no country, the area that would later come to be called Nigeria met all these standards. As far back as 1500 CE, societies in the Niger River area had already developed sophisticated political, economic, and cultural relationships with themselves, making the region a relatively integrated economic unit. Political boundaries existed between the regions but often coincided with physical boundaries, such as bodies of water or mountain ranges, or were established by mutual agreement between societies over generations.^A However, over the centuries leading up to the advent of colonial rule and the amalgamation of Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria into a single administrative unit by the United Kingdom, the regions had evolved differently and have set out on different paths.

In the North, the Fulani tribe had evolved into a proud race, notably described by the Scottish explorer, Mungo Park as the “Possessors of many Kingdoms” who considered all Negroes to be their inferiors, and even felt themselves to be the equals of the white races.^E The many conquests of the Fulani tribe which swept the country from Sokoto in the northwest to Yola in the northeast brought along the Islamic religion. This combined with the pre-existing form of tribal administration handed down from the powerful Songhai Empire created a sophisticated civilized unit that had courts which was served by judges erudite in Muslim law and a taxation/administration system that was highly developed and centralized.^G In the South-West, The great Ife Kingdom had become a major trading powerhouse and a site of great wealth. Most of the roads in Ife were paved with potsherds in a fishbone pattern, a very tedious and labor-intensive task. Artisans and craftsmen flocked to Ile-Ife from the surrounding regions to ply their trades.^A The Ibo tribe in the South-East had evolved into a gerontocratic society, such that colonial officers even had an extremely difficult time identifying who the ‘‘traditional’’ rulers of the region were when they arrived.^B The Benin and Oyo kingdoms had also expanded into empires in their respective rights.

It is important to set this precedent, to comprehend the dynamics and stage of complexity that these African societies were in before the advent of British enterprise and rule in Nigeria as well as the eventual amalgamation of British Nigeria. Be that as it may, it would be remiss to think that these societies were advanced economically and socio-culturally. The administrative system of the Fulani had deteriorated following the decay of the religious zeal which had prompted the ‘Fulani Jihad’ and at the time when the Brits took over administration in 1900, the Fulani Emirates were a shell of themselves. In the South, some societies were still crude, unrefined, and uncivilized (according to Britain’s standard). Human sacrifices and fetish worship were also commonplace. ^G However, the biggest plight of Northern and Southern Nigeria at this point was the Slave Trade. Early in the 16th century, participation in the slave trade aroused British interest in West Africa. They competed with the Portuguese,  Spaniards, Frenchmen, Dutchmen, Danes, and Germans for supremacy in the profitable business of supplying the New World with slaves. However, by the turn of the 17th century, the Brits had turned over a new leaf and now sought to end the slave trade. During the twenty years between 1829 and 1849, a total of 1,077 slave ships were captured by British warships. Slave exportation of slaves from certain areas was brought under control, but thousands of slaves were still exported from Africa each year. Even as late as the year 1847 it was estimated that 84,356 slaves left Africa for all destinations.^F The quest to end the slave trade and a combination of other factors that will be discussed led to the advent of British rule, the creation of the ‘‘Dual Mandate’’ by Frederick Lugard^B, and the eventual amalgamation of British Nigeria.

Lagos had been a notorious slave depot and annexation proved the only method by which the slave trading activities of native rulers could be effectively curbed.^E Kosoko, the King of Lagos who had usurped the throne in 1845 was unwilling to end the slave trade. On the other hand, the deposed King of Lagos, Akitoye, was willing to make himself an instrument of British policy if he could be restored to his throne. So a strong squadron was concentrated off Lagos and on Christmas Day, 1851, the town was stormed. Stiff resistance was encountered but it was overcome and the British soon found themselves in possession. Kosoko had escaped, but Akitoye was installed as ruler in his place. Britain’s authority was established in Nigerian territory for the first time. It later became necessary for Britain to annex Lagos when King Docemo, the successor of Akitoye, proved unwilling to govern by British desires. In June 1861 the consul was instructed to annex Lagos because “the Foreign Office had become convinced that the permanent occupation of Lagos is indispensable to the complete suppression of the slave trade.” However, King Docemo was reluctant to sign the treaty, so Britain made a show of force, again, to overcome the objections of the King. It is worth noting the socio-cultural factor: some kings of the Lagos monarchy were willing to align with British interests, while others were not. This played a significant role in Britain’s experience in Nigeria and should be kept in mind as we explore further.

Without gainsaying, it should be noted that the British interest in ending the slave trade was superseded by a conflicting agenda: Trade. Trade was by far the most important factor arousing British interest in the area that became the Nigeria Colony. British traders were constantly present along the West African shores, capturing slaves, seeking gold, exploiting the natural resources of the African tropics, and laying the foundations for future empires.^E To take it further, even the ostensible reason for amalgamating the Nigerian protectorates was economic.^B To make trade and resource exploitation possible.^D The ideal mandate of ending the slave trade was just a front, a ‘delusion’ as rightly put by Arthur Norton Cook, in his book, British Enterprise in Nigeria.^F The first reference to the trade in palm oil which later became of fundamental importance and gave the name “oil river” to the region which later became the Niger Coast Protectorate was as far back as 1590 (before any interest in ending the slave trade), when James Welsh of London visited the city of Benin and returned from his trip venture with a cargo of “589 sacks of pepper, 150 elephants teeth, and 32 barrels of oil of palm trees.”^E Fast forward to 1865, an active exchange of resources between Britain and the entire West African coast had fully developed. The principal imports consisted of Manchester cotton, silks, fancy goods, hardware, tobacco, gin, rum, salt, guns, powder, and sun-dries such as glass, crockery, hats, clothes, and furniture. These imports were paid for by the exportation of palm oil, palm kernels (from which a better grade oil was extracted in European refineries), rubber of good quality, ivory, ebony, camwood, gums, and timber.^F   

Even though the intention of the British Government to annex Lagos in June 1861 was stated to have been the abolition of slavery, no territorial expansion was made on this mandate.^G Trade, on the other hand, was a big motivator to bring additional territory under the control of the Lagos Government. In 1863 it became necessary to take action against Epe, where Possoo, a chief who had frequently shown hostility toward the British, had established himself. All attempts to induce him to submit to British authority were resisted. Force had to be employed to bring him to terms. Ibadan was the center of the Palm oil trade, but access to it was through the Egba, whose people were bitter foes of Ibadan and, in addition, had built up a prosperous business by acting as middlemen between Lagos and the producers in Yorubaland. The Egbas were a serious obstacle because they were in a position to close the trade routes connecting Ibadan and Lagos and, unless the roads could be opened, further development of trade was likely to be strangled. The British administration in Lagos under Captain Glover, then troops against them and forced them to open the roads. The delusion persisted that the sole purpose of the intervention was the destruction of the slave trade, apparently unmindful of the fact that expanding commercial interests would ultimately force the Government to interfere and partake in the geo-political affairs of the region.^F

The geopolitical struggle that followed the Berlin Act of 1885, including the ‘Scramble for Africa’ and the competition for influence among European powers, particularly the ‘French Crisis’, marked a turning point in British involvement in the region. In response, the British government took decisive steps to expand beyond Lagos, seeking to solidify its ‘sphere of influence’ in Africa, and officially declared a ‘Protectorate’ over the ‘Oil Rivers’ coastal territories to secure its control. After settling their territorial disputes with France through the Convention of June 1898, the Brits took full control of the Niger territories to the North and began the process of buying out the Royal Niger Chartered Company.^G In those days, it was common practice to administer territories through private companies. They were used extensively as agencies of expansion since the absence of modern-day sophisticated communication made it extremely difficult for the home country to maintain control in far distant areas. Simply put, when the British Government had no moral/political justification (e.g., anti-slavery agenda/policy in Lagos), they simply delegated agency companies to take control and exploit without accountability.^E Nevertheless, by January 1, 1900, there were three British administrations. The Oil Rivers Protectorate (also called the Niger Coast Protectorate)became Southern Nigeria, the Niger territories to the North (bought out from the Royal Niger Chartered Company) became Northern Nigeria and Lagos continues to remain as a third administrative unit. Amalgamation was on the horizon.

How do you justify ruling over a people whose land and resources you seek to exploit, despite having no legitimate claim to them? This was the dilemma faced by the British Nigerian administration. Their answer: convince themselves that their presence was for the greater good and that they had a duty to “civilize” and develop the people. This rationalization gave birth to the ‘Dual Mandate’. This term was coined by Frederick Lugard in the 1920s. The British argued that it was their duty to run the colonies efficiently and effectively so that the United Kingdom itself might benefit from extracting Nigeria’s raw materials and from the opening up of Nigerian societies to European markets. At the same time, they claimed to be bringing ‘‘progress’’ and ‘‘civilization’’ to otherwise backward African societies by developing the economy, eradicating slavery in all its forms, weeding out the corruption they believed existed in traditional political institutions, promoting a work ethic they believed traditional societies lacked, and educating populations on European conceptions of health, hygiene, and cleanliness, among other things.^B  The ‘Indirect Rule’ system allowed the British to govern through local rulers, using their authority to advance colonial interests and enforce colonial policies while maintaining the illusion of traditional leadership. The African rulers still commanded the loyalty and obedience of their people. However, their authority was ultimately subject to British control, with force used when persuasion failed, ensuring that colonial interests always took precedence.^D

Britain’s colonial rule in Southern Nigeria and Lagos was largely profitable, effectively achieving the economic goals of the Dual Mandate. Following their merger into the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, the region’s coastal access enabled customs duties to become the primary source of revenue, further strengthening British economic interests. In 1913, revenue from liquor duties alone amounted to £1,138,000.^G Revenues were also generated through fees and fines imposed by the court. In Northern Nigeria, using the Indirect Rule, the colonial authorities generated revenue primarily through direct taxation. The emir collected these taxes and deposited them in the native treasury. Unlike in the South, this system was effective in the North, where people were already accustomed to paying taxes to their emirs, and the emirs themselves had a tradition of paying tribute to a higher imperial authority.^B However, unlike in the South, where liquor duties were a major source of revenue, the prohibition of alcohol (likely influenced by religious beliefs/decree) in the North meant no income could be generated from its sale. The region’s distance from the coast made trade expansion challenging, leading to a focus on developing the native treasury and generating revenue through direct taxation. However, tax revenue remained insufficient, forcing the region to rely on grants from British taxpayers, which amounted to £136,000 in the year before Amalgamation.^G

Due to the failure of the British administration to generate revenue from Northern Nigeria and the shared success of Southern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard, therefore advocated for amalgamation to end the rivalry. The railway expansion and competition between  Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were also becoming a strong point of concern. It became disorganized, costly, and politically complicated to maintain two regions separated by an arbitrary line of latitude with two different administrations. it became clear that unification could not be delayed much longer. Lugard submitted his proposal for amalgamation in May 1913. They were accepted in September and on January 1st, 1914, the new Government of Nigeria, as set up by fresh Letters Patent and other Instruments, was proclaimed.^G Every action and decision had been driven by Britain’s economic interests. The British approach to economic development had three main objectives. The first goal was the expansion of Nigerian commerce through the exportation of raw materials (cash crops and minerals) and the importation of European finished goods. To facilitate this increased commerce, the British made large-scale improvements to the transportation and communication infrastructure of Nigeria, building roads, railways, telegraphs, and ports, and expanding the navigable waterways. The second goal was to bring Nigeria into a cash economy based on the UK currency. The third goal was to force Nigerians to work for that currency.^B Forced labor, a form of the very slavery that the British had pledged to abolish under the guise of the Dual Mandate, had returned.

The colonial government employed various strategies to compel Nigerians into forced labor. Across the country, native administrations were pressured to provide laborers, sometimes as a substitute for taxes, while workers received meager wages for their efforts. Forced labor was widely used in the construction of railways, ports, and roads. In southwestern Nigeria, colonial officials were frustrated by the high number of laborers who abandoned their assigned duties to work in the cocoa fields, where they earned better wages and enjoyed greater autonomy. To maintain control, the colonial government sought alternative methods to coerce Nigerians into the colonial economy. One such tactic was creating dependence on British currency, which could only be acquired by participating in the colonial system, either as a producer or as a laborer. The British government made some efforts to provide education to Nigerians, but these were neither widespread nor sufficient to meet the country’s needs. The 1921 census indicated that there were approximately 32,000 European-educated southern Nigerians, roughly 0.5 percent of the population.^B  Nevertheless, Nigerian education was on the verge of becoming a major challenge for the colonial rulers, planting the very seed that would ultimately bring an end to the British administration in Nigeria.

REFERENCES

A. Toyin Falola and Matthew Heaton, A History of Nigeria., Chapter 1, Early states and societies, 9000 BCE – 1500 CE

B. Toyin Falola and Matthew Heaton, A History of Nigeria., Chapter 5, Colonial Society to 1929

C. Toyin Falola and Matthew Heaton, A History of Nigeria., Chapter 7, Instability and Civil War, 1960 – 1970

D. John M. Carland, The colonial office staff and Nigeria, 1898 – 1914. Chapter III, Permanent Officials and Crown Colony Government in Nigeria

E. Arthur Norton Cook, British Enterprise in Nigeria, Chapter 1, The Genesis of British Interest in Nigeria

F. Arthur Norton Cook, British Enterprise in Nigeria, Chapter 2, The Making of Southern Nigeria.

G. Report by Sir Fredrick Lugard on the Amalgamation of Northern & Southern Nigerian